Global Change Essay

The concept of civil society was reinvented in the late 1980s in response to the rapid market development and the end of the Cold War. The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the rapid development of global market due to higher international security. Market development gradually leads to the development of civil society for two reasons: Firstly, the middle class helps to fight more freedom from the government as they want to gain more and more control of themselves. This situation, allows spaces for civil society to develop. Some donors search for NGOs to implement their civic or economic related interests and visions. 1 Secondly, the retreat of the â€Å"welfare† states in western countries further triggers the emergence of civil society as people want to address the problem themselves instead of solely depending on the invisible hand of the free market. Hong Kong, which is recognized as a newly industrialized economy (NIE) has adopted the minimal-interventionist principle in economic development for a long Low tax rate and free market policies are the priorities of the Hong Kong government. Civil society is said to be very important in the implementation of democracy as civil society is a representation of diverse interests of the people. In the planning system of Hong Kong, though the government was willing to involve more public participation in the process with the increasing force of democratization between 1990 and 1997, the role of civil society in planning policy formulation and implementation was not yet clear. According to the experiences of some UK cities, partnership between civil society and the local governments can facilitate sustainable development. It is yet to know whether such kind of partnership is possible in Hong Kong or not. So the aim of this paper is to find out the challenges and opportunities of mobilizing partnership between the government and civil society. Aims of the study This paper aims to explore the challenges and opportunities in fostering partnership between civil society and the government in the planning system of Hong Kong. This paper is based on the central argument that civil society organizations (â€Å"CSOs†) should play significant role in the planning system to explore the challenges and opportunities. It is argued that CSOs are important for promoting more effective idea in the policy planning in terms of reflecting the needs of the locals as well as the moral values neglected by both market and the government. It is believed that the challenges and opportunities are not that straightforward to be understood as they should involve a lot of other factors. These factors are to be examined in order to provide a clearer picture for the analysis. Structure of the paper This study is composed of six sections:- Session I begins with an introduction. It states the purpose of this paper and the content structure. Section II is the theoretical framework established for understanding the theoretical meaning of civil society and the importance of partnership between the government and the CSOs. Section III is the background about development of citizenship in Hong Kong. It is found that the civil society in Hong Kong is becoming mature. Section IV discusses on the six major factors contributing to the challenges in the relationship between the government and the civil society. Section V seeks to study real-life cases to further strengthen the argument that CSOs should play significant role in the planning system. Section VI, the final section of this paper. It summarizes all the key issues discussed in this paper and highlights the importance of the role of CSOs in planning system.   Defining â€Å"Civil Society† The definitions and meaning of civil society in different mainstream theories are explored and outlined in Appendix 1. The interpretation of civil society by Aristotle is now widely recognized as autonomy, not under direct state control. It emphasized on the formation of government based on voluntary willingness of people and universal election in order to guarantee sovereignty of citizens (for Locke) and the freedom of civil society (for Rousseau). The existing political system in Hong Kong is different as the HKSAR government is not directly elected by the citizens. Hong Kong people can only elect some of the legislative councilors, who act as delegates to deal with legislative issues; and district councilors, who are serving as advisors of the government. The sovereignty is just partly in the hand of Hong Kong people. In fact, the situation of Hong Kong is closer to the idea of Hegel that civil society and family together form the state. Civil society is actually functioning as a partly autonomy body under the government of Hong Kong. However, civil society should perform a more active role in the system in order to balance the power of the state and the market for the benefit of the public. So Friedmanns’ definition of civil society will be applied to support the empowerment of civil society. Civil society, as an association of individual interests, should grow up to balance the power of the state. His definition also separates the concept of market from civil society, which is applicable in the situation of Hong Kong. Friedmann(1998) states that civil society must be seen as standing in â€Å"opposition† to the corporate economy. The relationship of civil society and the market should not be neglected when we understand the relationship of the government and the civil society. 2 To sum up, the combination of Friedmann’s and Hegel’s definition of civil society is applied in this paper. Civil society is defined as a sphere without direct state control, but is not totally separated from the state. The participation in civil society is based on voluntary willingness and it is actually an association of various individual interests. It is different from the concepts of corporate economy and family, but they are related to some extent. Civil society may not necessarily oppose to the corporate economy, but they may interplay to produce good results. Civil society should be empowered to balance the power of the government and market.

Reconstruction of signals for data length of the ultrasonic signals

Introduction:Since really early from 1960s, signal Restoration remained as one of the most popular and ambitious jobs for supersonic proving techniques in signal analysis. A figure of techniques have been developed since that clip, opposite and pseudo opposite filtering, rental squares methods, maximal information etc. However from the positions of assorted writers in all mentions in this thesis we can non stipulate that one method can be used to bring forth a high declaration in existent or practical applications. The ground of failure for existent universe applications of the signal Restoration is connected to the ill-posedness of the job. Ill-posedness can be defined as figure of independent grades of freedom of the deformed signal is by and large than that of the original signal [ 17 ] . Distortion is caused due to the noise and other effects ensuing in end product with some spectral constituents or uncomplete information. Therefore Restoration by necessity requires the usage of extra information about the original signal that is non present in the deformed signal ( end product signal ) . To reconstruct the signal every bit near as possible to the original signal is taken from a Priori cognition or from somewhere else. Deconvoltuion or decryption of the signals such as image, address, ultrasound signal received must be a replicate of the original signal sent signifier the transmittal terminal to analyze the concealed information in the signals from the surfaces under trial. To analyze the signal or information we need to deconvolve the signal or decrypt the informations. Assorted techniques are available in digital signal processing as described in the earlier chapters to deconvolve the signals. Deconvolution has shown promised consequences in signal analysis. There are different devonvolution methods in assorted signal spheres as classified in the chapter-2. Recorded Signals suffer from deformation map to bring forth the original signal. The chief ground for deformation is linear noise every bit good as the other internal and external effects. The pertinence of the proposed Wiener and Blind devonvolution based signal analysis techniques presented in the above two chapters are applied to the fake s tationary and non-stationary, existent clip signals. Our aim is to retrace the signals for informations length of the supersonic signals, Signal to resound ratio and the deformation maps. We think it will be better to advert that the signal analysis is carried out for fake and existent signal. When a existent signal is restored we do non hold an original signal. So in order to compare out our algorithms public presentation simulated signals are really helpful. It is really hard to supply a valid definition for comparing of existent signals in supersonic testing. In general the Ultrasonic Non Destructive Evaluation ( NDE ) is used for defect sensing and localisation in construction under trial. The recorded supersonic signal characterizes construction, defect or cleft, and material surface. These contemplations are called reverberations classified as, mistake reverberation, back-wall reverberation and the noise ( grain ) . The backscattered reverberations present valuable information pertaining to the features of stuffs. Most of the supersonic applications i.e. subsample clip hold appraisal, deepness profiling, thickness measuring of thin beds rely on high declaration Deconvoltuion.Consequences and treatments:In this chapter we focus on public presentation of the Wiener, Blind and some other deconvolution techniques from the MATLAB tool chest for different parametric quantities such as, The signal Restoration is carried for existent with different lengths ( sample N = 256, 512, 1024 ) .Signal-to-Noise Ratio is calculatedMinimal Mean Square is estimated comparing the obtained coefficient of reflection map ( particularly simulated signals ) . Ocular comparing ( proving ) utilizing the estimated signal with the original signal. Deconvolution operation is performed on fake stationary and non-stationary signals and every bit good as the existent signals. We need to cognize about the deformation maps. Here we present the signals and Impulse response maps. we have simulated a stationary and non-stationary signals. the analysis is carried out utilizing the consequences of the existent signals and fake signal. We have two signals recorded from 50MHz and 230MHz transducers. We present the signals, Signals recorded in supersonic non-destructive rating from the surfaces under survey are distorted by features of noise arising from internal and external beginnings, and extension waies. The two of import features restricting the public presentation of the Wiener deconvoluion are Attenuation of noise in the supersonic signal, and Band bound. Since the frequence bandwidth of the original signal is by and large narrow, frequencies beyond this limited part in impulse response lend a small in signal Reconstruction. Wiener filter is called Minimal mean square ( MMSE ) calculator. It is sensitive to the power spectrum of the original surface. In this the reconstructed coefficient of reflection map differs in frequence features. It is proved that wiener deconvolution when suitably applied can supply effectual consequences even under unfavorable conditions [ 84 ] . In this we present a solution for signal Reconstruction utilizing wiener filter theory. The public presentation and the analysi s of the consequences are chiefly affected by noise. NOISE LIMITS THE AMPLITUDE OF THE REFLECTIVITY FUNCTION, as per the consequences shown below. Due to signal to resound ratio in the denominator Wiener filter underestimates the amplitude as shown in equation ( 5.1 ) . High declaration signal Restoration can be achieved by big SNR betterment without deformation. Ten ^ ( ? ) =G ( ? ) Yttrium ( ? ) = [ ( H^* ( ? ) ) / ( |H ( ? ) |^2+ ( S_v ( ? ) ) / ( S_x ( ? ) ) ) ] Y ( ? ) — — — ( 5.1 ) Where, G ( ? ) = Wiener filtering S_v ( ? ) and S_x ( ? ) are power spectra of noise and original signal. Noise can be reduced different signal processing methods, as discussed above to cut down the electrical noise, even after averaging if the SNR is deficient filtering is required, the lower the SNR, the restored map becomes undependable. High declaration or acceptable consequences can by taking a moderate SNR. Reliable coefficient of reflection map can obtained for a moderate SNR. The consequences presented below are at different SNR values such as eternity, 20db, 40db. Fake Stationary signal: Signal Sigma noise coefficient Gamma Thresholding SNR dubnium Mistake MSE Simulated_stationary_1 0 100 Infinity 1.0982e-005 Simulated_stationary_2 0.1 100 20.9315 0.4214 Simulated_stationary_3 0.01 100 30.5329 0.1387 Simulated_stationary_4 0.001 100 40.7859 0.0117 Fake non-Stationary signal: Parameters for fake non-stationary signal: Signal Sigma noise coefficient Gamma Thresholding SNR dubnium Mistake MSE Simulated_stationary_1 0 100 Eternity 0.3320 Simulated_stationary_2 0.1 0.3 3.443 0.4214 Simulated_stationary_3 0.01 0.98484 13.0852 0.5831 Simulated_stationary_4 0.001 100 23.2153 0.3368 To back up the account on the effects of noise to retrace the coefficient of reflection map in above few pages is presented utilizing consequences from the fake signals. The consequences tabulated in tabular arraies ( table 5.1 and table 5.2 ) show that SNR limits the signal Reconstruction. Better public presentation can be obtained by bettering the signal-to-noise ratio. One of the many methods to better the signal to resound ratio is to extinguish the background noise utilizing the thresholding procedure. One of the methods is threshold method in reverse filter explained in chapter -3. The lower the SNR, the larger the variableness of estimated spectra and hence the more undependable the computed maps and restored signal. The application of Wiener filtering is utile merely if the SNR is moderate for the of import signal frequence constituents. Data provided in the tabular array ( ) support that the SNR value limits the amplitude of the coefficient of reflection map. In the undermen tioned subdivision we restore the coefficient of reflection map for the existent signals. The job is we do non hold the original signal to prove the public presentation. It is apparent that the signal constituents obtained by Wiener filtrating are utile when restored with MODERATE SNR value. So we assume signal restored with moderate SNR value contain utile information for the signal analysis under Wiener filtering. Signal Restoration for Real Signal recorded utilizing 50MHz ( 1:1024 ) : Signal Sigma noise coefficient Gamma Thresholding SNR Doctor of Divinity Our purpose is to reconstruct the first from each pulsations of signal as shown in the figure ( 5.9 ) . Now we deconvolve the signal for three different length where N = 256, 512 and 1024. Thus the lengths of the sequences will the consequence the Restoration of the signal. The Restoration is performed utilizing different deformation map or impulses responses. The sequence selected 1:212, The sequence is selected from 1:540, Next we will show by changing the noise coefficient sigma for the above set of sequences and the values are tabulated, Signal Sigma Gamma Thresholding SNR Doctor of Divinity From the tabular array, the first and 2nd rows correspond to the signals with the sequences ( 1:212 & A ; & amp ; 1:540 ) with the parametric quantities such as the noise coefficient sigma =0, when we compare the figure-5.11 with figure- 5.13 and figure- 5.12 with figure- 5.14 the coefficient of reflection is much more better than the other the 1. The figures 5.13 and 5.14 are the signals with added noise ensuing in a moderate SRN value. As discussed in the above subdivision to obtain a high declaration end product we need to seek for a good or moderate SNR and every bit good as the Thresholding value it minimizes the background noise and therefore ensuing in a better coefficient of reflection map. Harmonizing to the belongingss of supersonic signal, the incursion or the traveling is limited harmonizing to the frequence of the signal. The lower the frequence of the transducer more the ultrasound signal can inspect the construction under trial. Due to this restriction, we have a job even when entering the signals. In this above subdivision we presented the Deconvolution operation on the 50MHz signal, here we produce some consequences obtained utilizing 230MHz, for different sample lengths e.g. 1024, 256 and 512. Some of the signals and urges responses are as shown, Simulation-1: existent signal A * impulse response-A ( 20:900 ) : Simulation 2:Blind Signal deconvolution:In this subdivision we use the blinddeconvolution availabel in matlab signal processing tool chest. We use deconvblind to reconstruct the coefficient of reflection map. For above mentioned signal in Figure- 5b. Coefficient of reflection maps are restored for the signals recorded usinf 50MHz and 230MHz utilizing the impulse response. Simulation 1: Simulation 2: The consequences are produced utilizing iterative process. Appraisal of the parametric quantities is implimented utilizing Maximal Likelihood method. We foremost estimate the coefficient of reflection map x ^ ( T ) which is given in timedomain as, ten ^ ( T ) = ? Y ( T ) The iterative theoretical account in frequence sphere is given as, Ten ^_0 ( ? ) = ? Y ( ? ) Ten ^_ ( k+1 ) ( ? ) = X ^_k ( ? ) + ? Y ( ? ) – Ten ^_k ( ? ) H ( ? ) The chief advantage of the iterative filter iterative process is that it can be stopped after a finite figure of loops. Using this method high declaration end product can be obtained because this method is less sensitive to the noise.Decision:In the field of supersonic Non Destructive Evaluation ( NDE ) , the Restoration of signal is the chief job. Therefore, in this thesis the classical and the conventional deconvolution methods are studied and implemented to reconstruct the coefficient of reflection map of the sparse signals. One of the of import factors is execution of these two methods to reconstruct thin signals. Though there are some advanced techniques already in usage, such as – ripple, thin deconvolution and fiting chase. Here, we have used Wiener and Blind deconvolution techniques to reconstruct the coefficient of reflection map from the sparse signals. These methods are chosen with regard to the handiness of the clip and cognition I have sing the topic. The motive b ehind taking this subject as a portion of my MSc thesis is to better my bing cognition on the digital signal processing techniques and its applications in Ultrasonic Non-destructive rating methods. We think it will be better to advert about the background I have on the Deconvolution technique before get downing this undertaking. The lone thing I know is that deconvolution is the reverse operation of whirl. Deconvolution is known as opposite job. Performance of the coefficient of reflection map depends on the word picture or appraisal of the deformation map or Point Spread Function ( PSF ) . We restored coefficient of reflection map utilizing a non-blind deconvolution and a unsighted deconvolution technique. Non blind deconvolution can be advantageous, since it admits a closed signifier solution via Wiener Filtering. Additionally, in the instance of non blind deconvolution, it is easy to integrate diverse statistical priors on the surface coefficient of reflection map under trial. Once the PSF is known it is no longer important to reconstruct the coefficient of reflection map. The non blind deconvolution should be considered as an of import boosting phase supplementing the opposite filtrating [ 68 ] . Two related steps of public presentation will be used to assist over the quality of Restorations: the mean square mistake and the betterment on signal/noise ratio ratio. Even though MSE is non a dependable calculator of the subjective quality of a restored signal it will be used to give some indicant of the public presentation of the method. Performance of the algorithms is similar to that for noise less conditions. The consequences obtained for different Signal-to-Noise ratios are tabulated in ( 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 ) . It is apparent from the tabular arraies that wiener filtrating conserves most of the information associated with the signals at parts of high signal to resound ratio in the frequence sphere. Wiener deconvolution produces high declaration coefficient of reflection map for stationary signals. The public presentation of the proposed Wiener deconvolution is investigated on the fake stationary and every bit good as the non-stationary signals. Using wiener deconvolution to a computing machine generated signal is summarized. In the above figure ( 1 ) shows the convolved signal Y ( T ) ( 2 ) is the impulse response ( 3 ) coefficient of reflection map ( 4 ) Reconstruction of the coefficient of reflection map. The coefficient of reflection map is reconstructed for different SNR = inifinty, 20dB, 40dB. The figures 5.1-5.4 represent the coefficient of reflection maps with diminishing MSE with increasing SNR. Wiener filter method has satisfactory public presentation at comparatively high SNR values. At low SNR values wiener filter method public presentation is badly affected by noise.Future work:Harmonizing to the increased broad scope of applications based on deconvolution of supersonic signals, wiener deconvolution and blind deconvolution are studied and implemented in this thesis. Wiener filtering is called Minimal Mean Square calculator. This job has a broad assortment of applications in digital signal processing like geophysical modeling, supersonic analysis or bio-medical technology. Wiener Filtering is sensitive to the noise. Implementing Wiener filtrating suitably can bring forth appropriate consequences even under unfavorable conditions. In existent universe applications it is hard to gauge parametric quantities or conditions suitably. Signal analysis is carried out utilizing sweetening of Signal-to-Noise ratio and gauging the Minimum Mean Square mistake. Signal to resound ratio is enhanced by extinguishing the background noise or deformations added to the signal recorded from Ultrasonic Non destructive rating. The Minimal average square mistake is decreased by bettering the SNR value. Another classical method implemented in this thesis is Blind deconvolution. Signal Restoration appears in many Fieldss. These Fieldss have different purposes for signal Restoration, but certain basicss are common to all signal Restoration. As explained earlier signal debasement is due to two grounds ( a ) Noise, and ( B ) Distortions. The cardinal hurdle in signal Restoration is lack of information. In some instances it is non possible to hold cause for signal debasement. Most of the signal Restoration algorithms by and large require some a priori information in order to reconstruct the signal. The a priori information in blind deconvolution is estimated utilizing the maximal likeliness appraisal method. The above discussed two methods autumn under 2nd order statistics. These methods suffer from non minimal stage job. To get the better of the job high order statistic method is approached. The high order statistic methods exploit the belongingss of cumulants and polyceptra as mentione d in chapter -4. Execution of this method depends on the cognition of high order cumulants of the involved signal. Third order statistics based method is the particular instance out of the High Order statics, enables to [ 28 ] , Operate under high signal to Noise ratio, Operate expeditiously under the noise environments Continue the exact non minimal stage. It is clear that the conventional deconvolution techniques can non supply a high declaration end product when applied for thin signals. Transform-domain supersonic signal processing techniques were developed to find the defects in thin multilayered construction. In all these methods broadband supersonic signals were used, which are analysed in the clip or frequence spheres. These signals are normally clip limited or band-limited. The time-domain processing techniques can be confounding when the signals are distorted or the reverberations overlapped. The frequency-domain processing techniques are non suited when the defects are close to the surface or the reverberations overlapped [ 34 ] . So the hunt for dependable techniques is demanded. To obtain utile information about the concealed defects, time-frequency signal representation is developed. Thus L1 NORM DECONVOLUTION produce a high declaration end product even applied for thin signals. The time-frequency sphere methods such as WA VELET TRANSFORM, MATCHING PURSUIT and SPARSE DECONVOLUTION will bring forth high declaration coefficient of reflection map from thin signals.Ripples Transform:Ripples is a quickly germinating signal processing technique because of their localisation parametric quantities that adapt better to the signal features than the traditional Fourier transform. Applications range in many Fieldss such as, geophysical sciences, mathematics, and theoretical natural philosophies and in communicating. There are different types of ripple transform method, Continuous ripple transform, Daubechies wavelet transform Gabor transform. Discrete ripple transform The ripple transform is defined in the footings of footing maps obtained by switching and dilation [ 39 ] . It is found that Gabor transform to be the most suited method to supply information in clip frequence sphere. Wavelet transform is the correlativity between the signal and a set of basic ripple. The information presented in this subdivision is collected form mentions [ 39, 40, 85, 86 ] . In ripple transform an square integrable female parent ripple H ( T ) is chosen to analyze a specific signal. Number of daughter ripples ha, B ( T ) is generated from the female parent ripple H ( T ) by dilation and displacement belongingss. The ripple sequence W ( a, B ) of the signal ten ( T ) are given by, W_s ( a, B ) = ? _ ( -8 ) ^8? s ( T ) ? h^* ? _ ( a, B ) ( T ) ? dt = s ( T ) ? 1/va h^* ( t/a ) Where the girl ripple map is given by, h_ ( a, B ) ( T ) = a^ ( 1/2 ) .h ( ( t-b ) /a ) This is the basic ripple transform theoretical account. This theoretical account can be used to observe the pulsation and suppression of noise. Using this ripple transform technique the signal is represented in time-frequency sphere. For the appraisal of the daughter signal see [ 39 ] . One of the advantages of the ripple transform is the sub set filtrating that decomposes a signal into different frequence sets. The signal is divided in to estimate and item coefficient such as, A1 and D1 for the first degree decomposition so these are decomposed in to A2 and D2. It repeats this process until the degree reaches the upper limit that is limited by m where the entire information is 2m. The decomposition is represented by Discrete Wavelet Transform ( DWT ) in figure.

A Definition Of Social Justice

A Definition Of Social Justice Before considering social justice, it is important to understand why it matters. Social justice is a powerful idea in society today, buts its origins and meanings are partially unclear. There is perhaps little if any doubt about the significance of this question among people in poor and rich countries. The following research in regard to what I am going to discuss within this essay is looked upon at the concept of justice in regard to the issues and the impact of justice as of reducing the balance between rich and poor. Subsequently the overall concept of justice will appeal in my contention about fairness. As this meaning isnt controvertible it will demonstrate that patterns which are indecencies as embodied in the developing countries demanding another way to deal with justice between the rich and poor nations. However, in today’s gig economy this is not the case with reference to case studies it enables to try bringing out the possibilities and limitations of social justice as of what can be achieved to make it a better outcome. It also talks about the conventions and principles as stated as to what the society is doing to protect the individuals that are of in need of supporting their conditions. It even defines detailed definitions as opposed to every definition being merely different as from the perspective of the person in rich and poor countries such as social justice and fairness each word described having its own meaning. However, no one can deny the gap between rich and poor, but it is becoming progressively wider. Throughout the essay I even have concluded 1 context of justice distributive which is to do with fairness but in contrast it is said to be successful but is still being criticized. It is even argued that social justice is perceived as protecting individuals ensuring that they are treated fairly. The definition stated by Susan Torres offers a useful starting point for explaining the key individual elements of each word as opposed to the context within this definition under international law. As stated social justice is the key fundamental in valuing of ‘fairness and equity in resources, rights and treatment for marginalized individuals and groups of people, who do not share equal power in society because of their immigration, racial, ethnic, age, socio economic, religious heritage, physical ability, or sexual orientation status groups’ . As prior to clearly being a member of society, each member deserves to have all the same rights and opportunities and fairness within because the key components and aspects of social justice are entirely to do with society fairness. Therefore, it concludes to be the very essence of all great spiritual teachings throughout the society and without justice they cannot be any greater justice. To an extent it is even basically trying to create a society so that all members can lead fulfilling lives and have access to all the institutions prior to helping members of society realize potential in the community. Besides that, the meaning of justice is pretty well captured in a more familiar term, because social justice takes the core idea of justice as fairness and fairness often has been used with regards to an ability to judge without reference to ones feelings or interests and it can be heavily debated and is defined differently depending on whether it is from the perspective of the rich or poor. The law is moderately being a characteristic instrument as it can both increase and decrease legal aid. A particular example of the law diminishing legal aid is Equality Act 2010 which legally protects individuals from segregation in the work environment and wider society. However, they are numerous occurrences where this isnt the case in the law protecting individuals against discrimination. However, individuals are still being segregated example women may not get a job position due to becoming a pregnant mother and after that taking a paid leave. Besides that, additionally there is still a compensation pay gap amongst men and women and essentially, they should have right to equal pay. It is very common as to the gender pay gap being a potential topic of interest as of it being reduced within the UK it is still suggested it is still in favor for men. However as indicated over the UK it is said to be that men earn more than ladies as indicated by the national statistics and therefore the equality act must work on the grounds claiming that in April 2017, the sex pay hole for full time representatives diminished to 9.1% as in 1997 it was 17.4% as indicated by ONS. Although over time it has decreased, it is yet not socially on the grounds that people arent dealt with similarly and are contrarily negatively discriminated till day. In R (SG) v Secretary of state for work and pensions (2015) UKSC 16, (2015) 1 WLR 1449, the inquiry was whether the advantage cap was justifiable. The cap limits total of household income from welfare benefits to a fixed sum, irrespective of the subsistence needs of the family. The parties come to terms that it was by implication prejudicial against women. Lady Hale stated that what must be considered is whether the benefit cap applies to lone parents and it can be justified independently of its discriminatory effects. In considering that, Lady Hale concluded that the cap will deprive children of their basic needs which cannot be in their best interests and therefore the indirect sex discrimination inherent in the cap’s implementation is not a proportionate way of achieving its aims. Therefore, the most unfavorably influenced were single guardians with at least 3 or more children living in generally costly leased accommodation. They were adversely influenced as of the fact tha t they were less likely to get away from the impact of the cap and by moving to a new house and getting a job. Overwhelmingly these lone guardians were women and statistics demonstrated that 90% of single guardians are women in the UK. It is even seen that agreements representing those working in the gig economy are an example of exploitative new work patterns, and authoritative commitments in the common law. And sense they can never longer convey justice as shown by Uber and Deliveroo. These two organizations could control business law to profit them, Uber workers are categorized as independently employed working in a gig economy in view of adaptable work hours as they have little to none business security or assurance. Looking at the discussion of social justice in relation to distributive justice in a national and international context, distributive Justice is more concerned with the fair allocations of resources among diverse members of a community. The principles in regards to this are normative principles designed to allocate goods in limited supply relative to demand. The principles vary in what goods are subject to distribution income, wealth, opportunities and on the nature of subjects of the distribution and on the basis the goods distributed. One of the simplest principles of distributive justice is that of strict or radical equality. The principle even says that every person should have the same level of goods and services .However distributive justice is therefore best thought of as providing moral guidance for the political processes and structures that affect the distribution of benefits and burdens in societies. Beyond that the UN often refers poverty as a vicious cycle made up of a r ange of factors associated making it hard to overcome. As opposed to many societies are preventing individuals from enjoying their rights simply either as to who there are or cannot afford. Discriminatory laws, policies and practices may suggest that these groups are even denied the right to high standard of health, to work and adequate housing. Within case study the concept of social justice can have an impact as the laws can affect the opportunities of the freedom of citizens. The laws likewise control the delivery and influence whether assets e.g. education, healthcare and housing are or are not accessible to people based on their racial, ethnic, to age, socio economic, religious, heritage physical ability, or sexual orientation . To an extent at a point when laws discriminate people based on their enrolment to a specific social gathering, they have a substantial impact not just on who but on how people can embody and perform their personality, however likewise they can influence whether they can get to welfare benefits that addresses converging types of poverty. Besides that, what comes into place also is referred with refugees and they are more to do with an individual being given security of protection. Therefore, asylum seekers become a refugee when the immigration authority decides on the outcome whether the individual fits within the international definition of a refugee. Besides this the international law states that for an individual to become a refugee the individual clearly needs to have met the criteria for the refugee status as stated by the article convention 1951. International and European law on a refugee basis is an example of the law being socially just and a measure of reducing balance between the rich and poor claiming the law is giving asylum seekers and refugees the chance to a superior life by enabling them to dwell in their country of origin, if their life is in danger in their country of origin. The Dublin Regulation is one measure of the European law which does this. Article 6(4) of regulation (EU) No604/2013 expresses that a part state in which an unaccompanied child has held up a case for asylum, the best interests of a child must be protected. The law instantly promotes social justice because it is taken account of the prosperity and the best interests of the child into thought before anything else. Within the 1951 convention Article 31 even states that refugees are secured against penalties for reason of illegal entry. The law encompasses human rights and it even promotes social justice and sustainability since it ensures that individuals who are in danger or at risk by aiding them to move to a safe country. Furthermore, Whether the applicant the home countries are ‘safe’ it can be assessed by examining the definition in Annex I of the Procedures Directive, which stipulates that taking into account: the legal situation of a country, the application of the law within a democratic system and the general political circumstances†¦there is generally and consistently no persecution†¦, no torture or inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment and no threat by reason of indiscriminate violence in situations of international or internal armed conflict . Although the 1951 article convention sets out an obligation on states to treat refugees without discrimination in view of their nation of origin , the asylum procedures directive and its recast have enabled the EU nations to partition asylum seekers into various categories, with nationals of certain third nations justifying less favorable procedural treatment than others. This may raise basic strains with obligation to regard of the convention as the foundation of refugee protection in the EU4 and to refrain any elucidation of the EU refuge acquits which would undermine it. According to lady hale speech case study is entirely linked as many infection diseases are killing millions of people each year of whom are in the developing world. The leading cases of illnesses and deaths are in Africa, Asia and south America regions that accounts for the world’s population which are HIV/AIDS, The crisis of aids has especially drawn the attention with respect to the way that numerous number of people in the developing world dont appear to get to the medications that are expected to treat disease or alleviate suffering. Consistently many more people are killed due to the aids in this developing society. The situations behind this is because of the lack of access to essential medicines being manifold, however in many cases high cost of medications is particular barrier to required medicines or treatments. As from knowing excessively the drug prices are often due to strong intellectual property protection. Therefore, the governments within the developing countr ies try and attempt to bring the cost of the medicines down prior to having come under pressure from industrialized countries and the multinational pharmaceutical industry. As to joining WTO it equals to lower tariffs meaning more money for the owner of the medicines. In terms of this the world trade organization partially sets out standards for the overall protection of intellectual property, including patents for pharmaceuticals, which has come under criticism because of the effects that increased levels of patent protection will have on drug prices . Several number of new medicines are vital for the survival of millions they are already too costly for most people in poor countries either because the medicines are unaffordable, have become ineffective due to resistance, or are not sufficiently adapted to specific local conditions and constraints The law as of opposed does not deliver a socially just outcome as of those in a less economically developed nations and wont have the capacity to afford the cost of medicines by owners who have a monopoly because of licenses required by trips. Nonetheless, it does protect individuals property rights so individuals cant copyright their work so nobody else can assume the acknowledgement for it without the owner’s consent. From this, one could come to a conclusion that the Doha Declaration takes a large step toward ensuring that intellectual property protection serves the public interest and lays out the options countries have available when prices of existing patented drugs are too high for their populations .Also that the law protects property more than it does therefore people’s lives are wasted due to patent laws being practiced. It can even be said that law undermines social justice and that law will never be socially just as opposed to the current system of the intellectual property. However as to considering a different context such as human rights, the law still protects people as much as it possibly can as to a certain extent where these laws will allow citizens to flee their country if they feel they are being persecuted. The UK legislation in the 1940s recognized rights to universal free education up to age14.This helped poorer children have free access to schools. The underlying principle was social justice as to those not being able to look after themselves should be looked after by the community from the cradle to the grave. Besides that, in relation to this what emerged in 1942 was a Beveridge report which was a method of reducing the balance between rich and poor as the rich paid into scheme to help the poor. This is an example of the law from the cradle to the grave as to the whole community looking after those in need of help. Referring to lady hale speech from the comments they are ought to be applauded as she has an obligation to secure the task and access the law in the UK. However, she considers it to be her obligation to alert those along these lines and if not, it would be ethically off-base. I feel that the access to justice is a vital issue and if these progressions imply then those with no capital cant challenge those with huge money saves the suggestions for us as a general public are appalling. However, take cases of evidence against huge pharmaceutical organizations for instance without legal aid are currently now impossible. Besides that, there have been hi profile cases of absurdity, for example, the Maxwell Brothers when all is said and done in the arrangement of legal aid it has prompted fairness and equivalent access. In the event the judges say nothing in regard to the approaches about the policies it will therefore destroy natural justice issues. I would recommend that they have failed t he promise they took towards the beginning of their profession and should hang their heads in disgrace. The main thing is that it is basic if they criticize such plans wherever they originate from and are not divided in their complaints. This lady’s balance is a careful critique to me as an indication of her exceptional honesty and faith in the law and access to it for all. I applaud her activities and expectation it causes a genuine verbal confrontation. Overall each case study raises significant questions about the balance between rich and poor in terms of advantages and disadvantages. Besides that, the law does have an important part in promoting social justice, but it is limited. Numerous people would state that the law adds to the realization of a more socially and sustainable society because of human rights and legislation and international and European law, however this isnt altogether true. Whilst the law is encompassing human rights it has promoted social justice in past when incorporated but it isnt always generally for the underprivileged. Property law is a key example of how the law doesnt change the harmony amongst rich and poor rather it builds it. The conception of social justice refers more broadly to fairness and equality, but it additionally speaks to a worldwide structure for human rights, recognition and dignity, however patent laws are utilized for instance peoples dignity and human rights are not regarded. Also crediting individuals for their work is considered more vital than saving a life, therefore it isnt altogether. Just, it can be esteemed ethically wrong while social justice is tied in with being ethically right and moral. Further on in regard to the laws having an impact on these circumstances changes have been implemented but it doesnt have much of a big impact as to balance. Beyond that referring to lady hale speech every context in social justice has a different meaning in poor and rich countries because of the world we live in and prior to the difficulties faced. However, at a point we understand justice drives from ensuring that all individuals and countries have equal opportunities to exercise their talents and be rewarded for their efforts. Also, as to the 1951 conventions being in place it helps provide a good framework within which decisions can be made and it can at least help with decisions and help individuals.

Media Report Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Media Report Analysis - Essay Example In December 2009, Lovett was suspended from the football club, and in February 2010, the club terminated his contract. The principal reason given was that he had brought the club into disrepute after sexual assault allegations had been made against him. The precise details of the contract are not provided, but this press release from the football club suggests that by attracting negative media attention, Lovett had done enough to be in breach of certain clauses. However, it is unlikely that this would have been sufficient reason to terminate the contract, given that, as the football club itself emphasises, Lovett remains ‘entitled to the presumption of innocence’. For this reason, however serious the nature of the allegations made against Lovett, to do more than indefinitely suspending the contract pending police investigation would have seemed a disproportionate response to the issue. The Club is therefore careful to emphasise that it is not for them to prejudge on innocence or guilt, which ‘is for the Court to decide’. Instead, what is emphasised is that these charges were not the sole reason for the termination of the contract. The press release therefore refers to ‘a series of acts and omissions in breach of his [Lovett’s] employment contract’. Little detail is given on what these breaches involved, apart from that he failed to fulfil his training commitments, and to maintain sufficient communication with officials at the football Club. While the sexual assault allegations made against him provided valid reason for the suspension of Lovett’s contract until the criminal justice process had taken its course, these breaches do seem to be adequate justification for the termination of the contract. If Lovett failed to turn up to training sessions with the rest of the team, then his performance on the field would clearly suffer, as would his

Imobilization of enzymes in clinical diagnosis using nanotechnology Research Proposal

Imobilization of enzymes in clinical diagnosis using nanotechnology - Research Proposal Example Immobilization can be done either physically or chemically. Physical immobilization involves weak interactions between the existing enzyme and the support whereas chemical immobilization includes formation of covalent bonds with the enzyme. Examples of physical methods of immobilization include adsorbing the enzyme in a water-soluble matrix, microencapsulating the enzyme with a solid membrane. This article looks into an overview of how immobilization was applied in the clinical diagnosis of the above mentioned diseases and new techniques that can be applied in the diagnosis process that reflect on advancements in the preceding methods. Nanotechnology has been applied in immobilization of enzymes via peptide mapping which is achieved through proteolytic digestion with enzymes such as trypsin. This process has been a possibility due to the quick and efficiency in the identification and digestion of unknown protein. Peptide mapping is done with the aid of enzymatic cleavage of the protein. Identification of the peptide fragments is done using either matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry or electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and in each case of identification separation of the mixture improves the coverage of the sequence. Peptide mapping is disadvantageous from the manual way of manipulation of samples besides lengthened enzymatic activities during proteolytic digestion. An antibody having a high affinity for a the substance under test is attached to a solid surface for example the human chorionic gonadotropin and a mixture of the purified human chorionic gonadotropin and a fluid test sample are passed through a test system and observations made on the results. Absence of human chorionic gonadotropin in the sample tested in deduced from the binding of the linked enzyme and the less the human

Comment about the shooting issue in UCSB Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Comment about the shooting issue in UCSB - Essay Example Deterrence is one of the crime prevention strategies and allowing for gun ownership, by eliminating stringent laws to ownership promises a solution. With a sole objective to kill, and later to commit suicide, the knowledge that another person with a gun may be present in a target area is a sufficient deterrence (ViewCaps n.p.). This is because the person could attack the criminal and apprehend him or her before many people can be executed, a factor that means that the criminal intention may not be successful and therefore discourages such attacks on people. In addition, the knowledge that other people may be possessing guns in a targeted area can be deterrence because even if the suspect intended to commit suicide after attacking people, existence of other gun owners could terminate the suicide objective and lead to prosecution of the attacker. Consequently, government should enact rules that facilitate gun ownership, as deterrence strategy, to prevent gun related attacks such as the one witnessed in the Isla Vista community shooting. This is particularly because armed law enforcement personnel are not always available to respond to such gun related

Religious ideology and the power of the state in African past Essay

Religious ideology and the power of the state in African past - Essay Example mid Caliphate came to existence in 909 AD; the Fatimids ruled following the Berber revolt, and later on, attempted to acquire morocco and Egypt as well from the Mamluks who were in control (Islam in North Africa, N.d, slide 7). The Arab leadership was evident, which subjected people to pay taxes and conversion to Islam, failure to which they would be killed. With time, Arabic became the main language, which displaced other languages, and as a result, by the 14century, Christianity had been reduced to the ration of 1 in 10 Egyptians. Islam also spread among the Berber community, mainly through army membership; the Berber captives were converted to Islam once recruited to the army (Islam in North Africa, N.d, slide 12). Despite the Berbers’ resistance, when the Muslim army conquered Morocco and Algeria, the Berbers had to convert to Islam. Arabs had succeeded in conquering the Berber territories, forcing the Berbers to be slaves. This Arab rule introduced multi–cropping, aimed at increasing the state revenue. However, the severe famine of 1062-73 influenced the decline of Fatimid rule, which was overthrown later on by the Mamluk troops, and thereafter, Mamluks took over leadership in Egypt. It is rather evident that the Arab leadership influenced the spread of Islam all over North Africa. The Ptolemaic rule existed between 332-30BC; Ptolemaists succeeded Alexander the great. They focused on advancing Egypt, with port of Alexandria being their main achievement. As a result, Alexandria became the biggest city in Egypt, therefore attracting many people from different races (Greek conquest, N.d, slide 3). The Ptolemaists aimed at expanding trade from Europe to red sea and Indian Ocean, with the Greeks introducing camels. Aksum was one of the regions involved in trade; it was ruled by king Zoscales who was of Greek origin. In 146 BC, Rome had conquered Carthage, creating a new province, Ifrikiya. As a result, Rome exploited the agriculture sector in North Africa,

Diabetes Type II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Diabetes Type II - Essay Example Of the many strategies and approaches that have been initiated in caring for chronically diseased patients, the telehealth system is a relatively new addition to the field. With only a decade or so of its commencement, telehealth has established itself as the future of medical care. The results so far have been extremely satisfying for both the patients and the health care providers. However, researches still need to continue in order to assess the long-term effects telehealth systems will give. Chronically diseased patients at the present are one of the largest group of patients availing health care. The cost and time that this group takes is larger than other groups combined together. Many of the visits to the hospitals are emergency visits, which are a further increase in the burden of the health care services. It is these factors that demand that a new system be introduced where patient care can be done with lesser hospital admissions and lesser complications. Diabetes has established itself as one of the most cost demanding and debilitating diseases of the 21st century. The impact of the disease affects all age groups and is prevalent worldwide. In America the figures are high and continue to grow, making a huge impact in the overall health economy. ... Also, introduction of primary health care and home care management systems is also being promoted to reduce the incidences of diabetes and to promote healthier lifestyles among patients. The study is aimed to study one of these new innovations, the Health Buddy System. Chapter Two: Literature Review The literature review is basically concerned with reviewing previous research that has been conducted on the disease under discussion and its prevention and cure measures. This part will focus on the following aspects: 2.1 Situation and Statistics of Diabetes Diabetes has been reported to be the sixth leading cause of death in America in 1999. (CDC, 2002) 6 percent of the Americans among the seventeen million are diabetic. Where as sixteen percent suffer from prediabetes. (ADA, 2001) Of the statistics, 90 percent of the patients suffer from type II diabetes. the per capita costs of diabetic patients in 2002 was found to be $ 13,243 as opposed to $2560 for the non diabetic patients.(Scott,2005) The statistics have shown an exceptional increase in the incidences among the rural areas, where in the 1980s the prevalence jumped from the sixth position to the first among the diseases. (Dever, 1991) And these incidences have increased steadily over the last ten years. The situation is compounded by the increased number of patients aging and joining the risk. Based on the current information, it is estimated that the number of patients suffering from diabetes will double by the year 2050. (Boyle, 2001) The cost for the care is staggering. The treatment costs for diabetes and diabetes related diseases in the US are $132 billion a year. (Brewin, 2005) The prevalence of diabetes is present among all ethnic and racial groups. Some, however suffer more from

Diversity at London Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games and Research Paper

Diversity at London Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympics Games Ltd - Research Paper Example The researcher states that diversity in the workforce can be categorized into these two aspects; functional level diversity and surface-level diversity. In today’s world firms need innovative ideas to sustain and flourish, a diverse workforce provides the proficiency to generate superb ideas for the company’s success. In order for LOCOG to stage a game for everyone, the corporation has the mandate to create a truly inclusive culture where diversity is valued and celebrated. Diversity is a fundamental part of the 2012 games and must remain at the heart of everything LOCOG does. Recruitment and development skills are critical components of achieving diversity objectives. LOCOG will establish the desired level of diversity for our workforce, suppliers, officials, and spectators, only by welcoming the world. Diversity management The human resource department can help LOCOG attain the vision of diversity by recruiting the workforce that is truly diverse, this workforce has t o incorporate all strands of diversity in disability, age, ethnicity, faith, and belief. The department should also regularly communicate the vision of diversity and inclusion to the workforce and stakeholders. The human resource department should also provide the workforce with the necessary tools that will enable them to integrate diversity and inclusion in their everyday work. Diversity management can help a LOCOG attain its mission in the following ways: 1. It will create a competitive advantage for the organization; members can provide the organization with knowledge resources. Diversity also produces a flexible, proactive and energized institution. 2. The organization will become more knowledgeable of the diverse customers; diverse members can understand and help customers who are similar to them. 3. Customers feel more comfortable when dealing with members of the organization, who seem similar to them, and that makes the customer feel an identity with the organization members . 4. Complex tasks usually require complex and collective input. This requires knowledge resources like skills information and different perspectives that can be provided by diverse members. 5. Diversity management will help LOCOG in increasing problem solving by providing a knowledge resource, diverse members can provide novel approaches, information, and immensely perspectives in the solving of the organizations’ problems.

Fiction and Brother Leon Brought Essay Example for Free

Fiction and Brother Leon Brought Essay A Wife  is a story written by  Manuel Arguilla  about a man who comes home to his province to introduce his wife from the city to his family. This short story won first prize in the Commonwealth Literary Contest in 1940. Baldo   younger brother of Leon, fetched Leon and Maria from the road to Nagrebcan * Leon (or Noel)   older brother of Baldo who studied in Manila where he met his wife * Maria   the beautiful and stunning wife of Leon from Manila * Labang   the bull whom Baldo considers as his â€Å"pet† * Norman Tabios   Marias ex-boyfriend who happened to be a loro * Gagambino   Leons favorite fictional character who gave him lots of guts to study in Manila * Churita   Labangs girlfriend/fiance Baldo and his older brother Leon were both waiting for the arrival of their visitor riding the carretela. Seeing his brothers wife, Baldo was easily taken away by the beauty of the woman from city as he narrates their journey to Nagrebcan. The idea of meeting with Leons parents for the first time made Maria a bit anxious. But along their way home, Maria discovered the peculiarities of the life in Nagrebcan as opposed to their life in the city where she met and fell in love with Leon. Summary: Exposition: Maria was the first one introduced in the story the wife of the main character Leon. She first noticed Baldo, the brother of Leon; then Labang was introduced, the family bull. Complication: On the way, Maria expressed her fear that their father might not like her. Conflict: Leon explained to Maria that their father is the mildest-tempered, gentlest man he knew. Climax: When they got home, their father did not welcome them. He was said to be in his room; â€Å"his leg is bothering him again. † Baldo saw his mother and sister Aurelia and Maria in the kitchen who seemed like crying. His father removed the roll of tobacco in his mouth when he saw Baldo and started [continues] How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife, is a short story written by the highly acclaimed Filipino writer Manuel Arguilla. This award-winning story is a long-standing favorite in Philippine literature. To examine this piece, the authors background must first be considered. Formalistic, historical, and sociological approaches can also be utilized to analyze the story further. Prominent symbols and their interpretations will also be discussed. About Manuel Arguilla Manuel Arguilla was born to Crisanto Arguilla and Margarita Estabillo in Barrio Nagrebcan in Bauang, La Union on June 17, 1911. The Arguillas were a humble, hard-working family who farmed the small piece of land they owned to make a living. In school, Manuel was a sharp student who showed promise of being a brilliant writer at an early age. He graduated as salutatorian of his high school and then left La Union to study at the University of Philippines, where he would eventually earn a Bachelor of Science degree in Education. Around the same time, he married fellow writer, Lydia Villanueva, and moved to Ermita, Manila. After college, he worked at the Bureau of Public Welfare and taught at the University of Manila. After working at the bureau for a few years, Arguilla was selected   to be the managing editor of The Welfare Advocate, the business newsletter. He served at the Bureau until 1943, when he was appointed to the Board of Censors. During this time, he was working at a Japanese propaganda agency and also as an agent of the Markings Guerillas, an anti-Japanese rebel movement. In 1944, the Japanese discovered Arguillas disloyalty and arrested him.

The pakistani community in the United Kingdom

The pakistani community in the United Kingdom Ali (1982) Pakistanis main concentration is in U.K. where they began in the early 20th century as sailors in the Merchant Navy and soldiers in the British army. They had an opportunity to migrate in large numbers following the economic expansion and shortage of labour resulting from the two world wars. However, their migration did not have a set pattern up until the last half of the 1950s. (p. 5-7) Post world war two migration to Britain from the Asian subcontinent was based on imperial ties and largely driven by economic imperatives. Rebuilding post war economy entailed a demand for labour that could not be satisfied by the British population itself. After 1945, virtually all countries in Western Europe began to attract significant numbers of workers from abroad and by the late 1960s they mostly came from developing countries in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Middle East (Massey, D. et.al , 1993, p. 431). Islam in the UK has a South Asian character. The largest number of Muslims originates from Pakistan (Samad Sen, p.43). Further to this, the largest group of Muslims from the Indian subcontinent have come from Pakistan, both West and East (Ibid.) In Pakistan, major impetuses to emigrate came from the poorer agricultural areas of the Mirpuri district in southern Kashmir and the Cambellpur district of the north-eastern Punjab. Smaller numbers left from the North-west Fron tier Province next to the Afghani border. In the case of Mirpur, a further factor was the disruption caused by the Mangla Dam project which started in 1960, and was ultimately to flood about 250 villages. In East Pakistan, which was later to become Bangladesh, the two main sources of immigration were in the Sylhet district in the north-east and the maritime region around Chittagong. Due to the struggles of a newly developed state and poverty, many Pakistanis took the opportunity to come and work in Britain. (Neilsen, 2004, p. 41) Before 1962, Pakistanis were British subjects (under the 1948 British Nationality Act) and could enter Britain without restriction. There was a dramatic increase in the rate of immigration just before the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962  [1]  was passed. Before the act of 1962 was passed about fifty thousand people entered Britain within 18 months, in comparison the 17,000 who entered between 1955 and 1960 (Shaw, 1998: 25). The threat of Britains immigration controls also coincided with a change in the Pakistani Governments policy on immigration. In 1961, when the 1962 Common wealth Act was imminent, Pakistani government withdrew restrictions on immigration and promoted the migration of 5,000 people in a move to compensate Mirpuri villagers who had been dispossessed of land by the construction of the dam (Shaw, 1998: 25). Until the beginning of the 1960s, entry into the UK by the citizens of British colonies and member countries of the Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1962, introduced restrictions on immigration to the UK. Although it was intended to discourage Pakistanis and people from Commonwealth countries from migrating to the country, it turned out to have the opposite effect. The unintended effect of the 1971 Immigration Act  [2]  was that a significant number of Pakistanis and from the other countries entered the UK to beat the ban (Shaw, 1994, as quoted in Samad Sen, 2007, p. 28). 1970s family reunification marked a turning point for the establishment of Islam in Europe. Along with emergence of community through family reunification, some of the conventional norms rooted in social relations, through the practice of Islam began to emerge (Ibid., p.38) These labour migrants despite their social origins and qualification levels were largely confined to low-paid manual work and faces racial discrimination when being recruited for jobs (Modood, 2005, p. 60). In the 1970s Ethnic minorities were branded as scroungers and the threat of overcrowding was becoming a grave concern. Enoch Powell, in 1967, openly advocated a policy of repatriation where he argued not for migrants; families to be reunited in Britain but rather that migrants should be returned home and reunited with families over there (Jones and Wellhengama, 2000: 16). Further to this, by emphasising that Britishness comprises common biological roots, a common language and an allegiance to the Crown; parliamentarians easily excluded certain migrants (Ibid, p. 31). With the consequences of state led policies of migration, and arrival and settlement of a growing Pakistani community, emerged socio-economic problems that this new community had to face. The next part of the essay will discuss the various ways in which the British Pakistanis are disadvantaged and ways in which they responded to the underlying and changing political, social and economic conditions in Britain. While the disadvantage of Pakistanis actually predates the rise of anti-Muslim prejudice, the latter threatens to exacerbate the former and to prevent the formation of goodwill required to act against the chronic disadvantage of Pakistanis in Britain. (Modood, 2005, p. 80) As the Labour force survey (Spring, 2000 as quoted in Saman Sen, p. 45) illustrates, Pakistanis are two and a half times more likely than the white population to be unemployed and nearly three times more likely to be in low-paid jobs. According to Cessari (p. 58) the socio-economic marginality of Pakistanis is most often accompanied by residential segregation. She argues that the data from the British census show that Pakistani immigrants tend to live in the most dilapidated or unhealthy housing conditions. Chain migration processes have a strong influence on locating minorities in clusters. Hostility from the society within which the settlement takes place can reduce the ability of the group to disperse and defence may be an important element in clustering. There are both positive and negative reasons for clustering in most ethnic clustering patterns and, given their simultaneous presence in many situations, it is difficult to disentangle dominant from recessive factors. Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that not all segregation results from negative factors such as white racism (Peach, 1996, p. 228) Rex and Moore (1967) demonstrated high levels of discrimination against immigrants, particularly against Pakistanis, in their field area of Sparkbrook in Birmingham. They showed high concentrations of Pakistans in their lowest housing class, the rooming house. Work by Dahya (1974), on the other hand, argued that Pakistani concentration in multi-occupied accommodation was a preferred, not an enforced, strategy. He argued that chain migration by village and family, the desire to maximize savings, shared language and religion, culinary needs and so forth all argued in favour of sharing accommodation. Thus, although discrimination existed, it was not material to the patterns of concentration that arose. Many of the early Pakistani migrants to Britain have been the most reluctant to attach a British identity to themselves. With the effects of globalisation, Pakistanis are also worried about losing their traditions, customs and values and hence hold onto the security of their close knit society with a hesitance in accepting anything British; (Jacobson, 1997, 185). Pakistani British Muslims have been vastly influenced by cultures and customs emanating from the subcontinent, and this will continue to happen for another generation or two. The context within which they practice their religion is after all, Pakistani one: not only because they younger generation learned about Islam from their Pakistani parents but also because Pakistanis are the dominant group within the local Muslim community. They are used to hearing Urdu spoken in mosque, eating Pakistani food and wearing Pakistani clothes at religious festivals, follow Pakistani customs at weddings and other religiousceremonies and abide by and rail against definitions of moral behaviour which have more to do with the norms of Pakistani village life. For them the interconnections between ethnic culture and religion are dense and intricate (Jacobson, J. 2003, p. 147) V.S. Khan (1979), writing on Mirpuris in Bradford, discusses the effect of migration on those arriving in Britain and ways in which this shapes their socio-cultural behavior. He maintains that the very means of coping with migration could lead to inherent stresses, in that the knowledge of traditional culture in the homeland, constant evaluation through the process of migration to Britain and prior expectations have a direct affect on the migrants life-style and values. The stressful experience of migration is alsoa crucial determinant of a migrants perception of his situation, and the actual options open to him. While many of the supportive institutions of village life buffer confrontation with the new and alien world in Britain, in the long term they not only restrict access to it, but also hinder the attainment of things valued (Ibid. p. 55) Werbner discusses similar factors: the social stresses experienced by Pakistani migrants in Britain derive from three main `arenas; the traditional culture and emigration area; the migration process; and settlement in the new environment and society (1990: 37). Her analysis however, presents a more positive view of the adaptability of Pakistanis to new circumstances, in particular to those concerning women, and regarding the expansion of kinship networks to inculcate friends and members of other sub-castes. (Imtiaz, 1997, p. 36) Significance of Bradford: The Bradford Metropolitan District is situated west of Leeds; north of the trans- Pennine highway. To the north and east lies North Yorkshire, with its manor houses, farms and cathedral cities, while to the west and north lies the Lake District. The city has been the centre of the wool trade since the 18th century and, until recently, wool dominated the local economy. Even the engineering and chemical industries were associated with the wool trade by supplying the needs of the textile industry. Throughout the 19th century it was mainly a working class city structured around a low wage economy. The global networks, stretching out to the colonies, in particular, were constructed around importing wool and reprocessing it for export. These networks persisted into the mid-twentieth century (Samad Eade, Community Laison Unit) Although Pakistani Muslims settled in various parts of the United Kingdom, Bradford still has one of the highest concentrations of Pakistani Muslims in the country (and more than any other Yorkshire and Humber region) (Din, 2006). Bradford is one of many towns and cities that have ethnically diverse populations in terms of religion as well such places as Tower Hamlets, Birmingham and Slough (National Census, 2001). The Bradford area also has one of the highest numbers of individuals who were born outside the European Union (National Census, 2001). The majority of Muslims in Bradford have roots in rural areas, with a large majority of Pakistanis from Mirpur in Azad Kashmir, a mountainous region and one of the least northern areas of Pakistan. This Pakistani community has a growing underclass with a significant section of young men under achieving in schools. They are generally characterised by low educational qualifications and occupational concentrations in restaurants and taxi driving. Along with low participation of women in the formal labour market and marriage at an early age, fewer years of education, lower educational skills and large average family and household size contributes to multiple deprivations (Lewis, 2007). Bradford has a rich religious, ethnic and cultural diversity. With a range of ethnic communities, it is predominantly Muslim (16.1 per cent) and largely of Pakistani origin with 14.5 percent of the total population of the city (National Statistics, 2003 as quoted in Gilligan, 2005). The Pakistani communities are very much concentrated in the inner wards of the city, where they tend to live amidst a relatively self-contained world of businesses and institutions, religious and cultural, which they have created to service, their specific needs (Lewis, 2002, p. 203.) Compared to other majority white communities, Bradfords Asian population is relatively young (National Statistics, 2003). They also tend to be located in areas facing relatively high levels of deprivation and disadvantage (DETR, 2000; Cantle, 2001; Denham, 2001 as quoted in Gilligan Akhtar, 2005). According to the Change Institutes report on the Pakistani Muslim Community in England, (2009) currently Bradford has the largest proportion of its total population (15%) identifying itself as of Pakistani origin in England. The report suggests that the latest estimates (from Bradford Metropolitan District Council) have indicated that the South Asian population has grown considerably over the last decade to 94,250, and that the people of Pakistani/Kashmiri origin number about 73,900. It further states that the South Asian population now represents about 19 per cent of the total population of Bradford and 16 per cent of Bradfords residents are Muslims, compared to the national average of 3 per cent. Therefore, the overwhelming majority of Pakistanis (young and old) have an attachment to Bradford. For many older Pakistanis, who arrived in the late 1950s and early 60s, Bradford is Mirpur is their home from home. For the young generations of Pakistanis it is their home (Din, 2006) Studies on Mirpuris: Much of the literature on Pakistanis in Britain, particularly from the late 1970s up to the late 1980s, tends to be based on studies of communities in particular towns, such as Anwar (1979) on Rochdale, Currer (1983) on Bradford, Jeffrey (1979) on Bristol, Shaw (1988) on Oxford, and Werbner (1985 1990) on Manchester. A number of studies have explored the extent of Asian (or Pakistani) migration and settlement across various geographical towns and cities (see Khan, 1974, 1979; Anwar, 1979; Shaw, 1988, 1994; Werbner, 1990). Some have had a particular focus on employment and housing issues (in particular Dahya, 1974; Werbner and Anwar, 1991; Anwar, 1991). Measuring the economic position of communities is easier to determine; what is more difficult is to examine the experiences and attitudes of young people towards their parents/elders; their community and the wider British society. There is an enormous amount of published work on the early immigrants (Rose et al, 1969; Dahya, 1974; Khan 1979). Rose et al (1969) is a good starting point for cultural studies relating to the Pakistani community. Rose explored issues such as the need to recruit labour immigrants to meet the needs of the British economy and the settlement process of the early immigrants in textile cities like Bradford. In addition he explored the problems encountered, such as obtaining suitable accommodation, access to public services, integration and the problems of adapting to a very different way of life. The experiences of families of early settlers joining their husbands in the United Kingdom have also, to an extent, been explored. This shows close-knit family ties which exist in Pakistani families, arranged marriages, biraderi and gender inequalities in Pakistani households (Khan, 1979). One of the earliest writers on Pakistanis in England is Dahya (1973 1974), who began his research in Birmingham and Bradford in 1956 and continued to publish into the 1980s. He remains amongst a hand full of researchers who have endeavoured to describe daily life amongst the single, male migrants and the control exercised over them by heads of families back in Pakistan. He clearly explained the nature of the links between the migrants in England and the social structures operating in Pakistan, based on the need for the migrant, whose family has sent him abroad in order for him to send back remittances and thus benefit not only immediate relatives but also the whole of the biraderi or kinship group. He concludes that: the Pakistani migrant community is in a very real sense a transitional society going through the phase of development from a rural to an urban industrial society (1973: p, 275). Today, with the constant movement between the villages of origin of Pakistani migrants and their places of inhabitancy in Britain, paving way for a constant, rapid social and economic change in both societies, his conclusion tends to be within a situational context of a time, when both were much more separate than they are today. Jamal (1998) carried out a research to explore food consumption experiences the British-Pakistanis in Bradford, UK and the ways the British Pakistanis perceive their food, and their perception of English food in the UK. He identified that the first generation of British-Pakistanis perceive their own food to be traditional, tasty but oily and problematic. Various English foods are perceived by them as foreign, bland, but nonetheless, healthy. The young generation of British-Pakistanis are increasingly consuming mainstream English foods while also consuming traditional Pakistani food. Rex and Moore (1967) demonstrated high levels of discrimination against immigrants, particularly against Pakistanis, in their field area of Sparkbrook in Birmingham. They showed high concentrations of Pakistans in their lowest housing class, the rooming house. Work by Dahya (1974), on the other hand, argued that Pakistani concentration in multi-occupied accommodation was a preferred, not an enforced, strategy. He argued that chain migration by village and family, the desire to maximize savings, shared language and religion, culinary needs and so forth all argued in favour of sharing accommodation. Thus, although discrimination existed, it was not material to the patterns of concentration that arose. According to the Labour force survey (Spring, 2000 as quoted in Saman Sen, p. 45), Pakistanis are two and a half times more likely than the white population to be unemployed and nearly three times more likely to be in low-paid jobs. According to Cessari (p. 58) the socio-economic marginality of Pakistanis is most often accompanied by residential segregation. She argues that the data from the British census show that Pakistani immigrants tend to live in the most dilapidated or unhealthy housing conditions. Another study of south Asian Muslims in Bradford by Khan (2009) refutes the commonly held belief that British Muslim alienation is an entirely Islamist narrative. In fact, the subjects of the study are alienated not only from British society but also from the cultural traditions and values of their own families. The author of the study was struck by their disconnected individualism and described them as libertines. This clearly contradicts the stereotype of Islamists radicalised by a hatred of Western society. Recent study by Bolgnani (2007) highlights forms of homeland attachment and analyses their significance among second- and third-generation British Pakistanis by comparison with the myth of return that characterised the early pioneer phase of Pakistani migration to Britain. He highlights that Homeland attachment for young British Pakistanis is constituted through school holidays spent in Pakistan, participation there in life-cycle rituals involving the wider kinship network, and the older generations promotion of the idea of Pakistan as a spiritual and cultural homeland. It further suggests that, for the pioneer generation, the myth of return justified a socio-economically motivated migration. He further argues that for the second and third generations, the homeland attachments and the idea of a possible return to Pakistan is a response to contemporary political tensions and Islamophobia. Therefore, he concludes that while myth of return still remains, for the majority, that myth has been revitalised and has a new political significance in the contemporary political context of British Pakistanis. However, another study of south Asian Muslims in Bradford by Khan (2009) refutes the commonly held belief that British Muslim alienation is an entirely Islamist narrative. In fact, the subjects of the study are alienated not only from British society but also from the cultural traditions and values of their own families. The author of the study was struck by their disconnected individualism and described them as libertines. This clearly contradicts the stereotype of Islamists radicalised by a hatred of Western society. Marriages: The governing principle of marital choice in any community is homogamy the selection of a partner from a similar social background shaped, for example, by race, class, ethnicity, religion, age and education, thus those who do not conform to these norms, in some circumstances, suffer sanctions, ranging from disapproval to ostracism (Bradford Commission Report 1996). For Pakistanis, the life-cycle with weddings, births and funerals is particularly lived in a shared way by the family extended and split over two continents, Europe and Asia. Adults make return trips for various reasons, but most centrally to arrange or perform a childs marriage (Ballard 1987, p. 21; Shaw 2001, p. 319-325). Among British Pakistanis marriage is not only within the same ethnic group, but consanguineous-arranged with relatives-according to clan as well as caste systems. In a complex context of ethnicity and caste, marriage is often seen as the chosen mechanism to consolidate biradari  [3]  loyalties. Furthermore, due to chain migration, stronger village and kin networks were created, that were later reinforced by transnational arranged marriages, often with cousins from the same area or village. Pakistanis, like many other groups, consider it an important parental responsibility to find spouses for their children. They prefer to select someone they know well, to be sure that he or she has the qualities they appreciate and will make a caring partner. However, Khan (1977) argues in his research that ethnic minorities such as Pakistanis, face two problems namely the limited availability of suitable persons in the restricted local community, and another the fact that their circle of acquaintance in the country of origin tends to shrink within the limits of the extended family. Therefore, for groups with a tradition of consanguineous marriage, it is only natural for the choice of partner to fall progressively closer within the family circle. This argument is supported by Rao Inbaraj (1979) who give evidence to support this view from South India, arguing that for South Asians monogamous, close consanguineous marriage has been practised for thousands of years. Moreover, Bano (1991) discussed the upward social mobility through the institution of marriage amongst British Pakistanis, which she sees as being marked in the Netherlands in comparison to Pakistan. She described the practice of cousin marriages explaining their common prevalence amongst relatively wealthy, rural, as well as landowning families. She then discusses the extension of cousin marriage (Ibid. p.15), proposing that it could include partners being chosen from distant family, or from the same religious tendency, or from the parents close business contacts. According to a research conducted by Overall and Nichols (2001), the U.K. Asian population, particularly within the Pakistani communities, tends to have high levels of consanguineous unions which are correlated with high rates of morbidity and mortality (Darr and Modell 1988; Terry et al. 1985; Bundey et al. 1991 as quoted in Overall Nickols, 2001). It is not unusual to observe a proportion of first-cousin marriages of around 50% (Darr and Modell 1988). Modood et al. argue that the Asian older generation prefers marriages to be arranged by families within the clan or extended family and that love marriages were not the most appropriate way of finding a life-partner. The most frequent argument supporting this view was that love marriages are equated with high levels of divorce. Arranged marriages are seen as diminishing the likelihood of divorce because the partners are chosen for their compatibility and suitable family backgrounds (Modood et al. 1997). According to most researchers there is a continuing prevalence for high rates of intercontinental and intra-caste marriages (over 50%) between British Pakistani spouses and brides or grooms in Pakistan (Charsley, 2003; Shaw, 2001). It is suggested that the pressure for such marriages is apparently exerted by close relatives in Pakistan who use marriage as a route for their children to migrate legally to Britain. According to recent research, however, the spouses marrying into Britain often suffer isolation, and have poor employment prospects (Charsley, 2003). Furthermore, most Pakistani children are compliant and agree, however reluctantly, to cousin and intercontinental marriages (Jacobson, 1998). The Home Office statistics show an influx of 15,000 prospective marriage partners (male and female) from the Indian sub-continent arriving in Britain in 2001 alone, the vast majority arranged by parents for their British-born children (Werbner, 2005). Charsley (2003) reports that, in 2000, there were 10,000 people both men and women, who married into Braitian. Werbner (2005) explains this phenomenon by arguing that Islam permits marriage with a wide range of close kin and affines, and according to recent researches, the majority of Pakistani marriages continue to take place within the biradari; a local agnatic lineage and, more widely, an ego-focused kindred of traceable affines and consanguineous kin. She argues that this notion of biradari helps mediate between kinship, locality and zat (caste), and that such biradaris are ranked and reflect class and caste status in the Pakistani society (Werbner, 2005). Darr and Modell (1988) conducted a research that carried inculcated an enquiry answered by 100 randomly selected British Pakistani mothers in the postnatal wards of two hospitals in West Yorkshire, Bradford, showed that 55 were married to their first cousins, while only 33 cases had individuals whether their mother had been married to her first cousin. Darr and Modell argued that there results indicated an increasing rate of consanguineous marriage in the relatively small group studied, contrasting with the decreasing rate which was observed in some other countries. They had enquired 900 women in hospitals in Lahore, Pakistan, in 1983 showing 36% first cousin marriages, 4% first cousin once removed, 8% second cousin, and 53% unrelated (of which 25% were in the Biraderi (same kinship). These figures are almost identical with those reported in Britain for the grand parental generation (who were married while they were in Pakistan), and supported their conclusion that the frequency of c lose consanguineous marriage was increasing among British Pakistanis (p. 189). According to another research by Modell (1991) both in Pakistan and the UK about 75% of marriages are between relatives, but the frequency of closely consanguineous marriage has increased with migration, about 55% of couples of reproductive age in England being married to a first cousin. In many cases the relationship is closer than first cousins because of previous consanguineous marriages in the family. The proportion of cousin marriages is likely to fall but the absolute number will increase, at least for the next generation, because the population is growing. According to the results of a study by Alam Husband (2006), Muslims comprise the UKs largest religious minority, and are the object of analysis and concern within various policy arenas and popular debates, including immigration, marriage and partner selection, social cohesion and integration. Their research analysed experiences and narratives from 25 men aged 16 to 38, their accounts shedding light on what it means to be a Bradfordian of Pakistani and Muslim heritage. It also highlighted the policy context surrounding the mens attitudes toward various facets of their lives, including marriage, family, work, the city in general, and the neighbourhood in which they lived. Alam Husband concluded that although there were some generational continuity of cultural values and norms, several significant changes were also simultaneously taking place. Shaw (2001) began his study by supposing that in the 1990s, forty years after Pakistani migration to Britain began, the rate of consanguineous marriage among British Pakistanis would show signs of decline, as the urbanized and British-educated descendants of pioneer immigrants adopt the values of many contemporary Westerners and reject arranged marriages. However, on the contrary based on the statistical data he gathered, he saw that Pakistani marriage patterns showed no such clear trend, and instead there was some evidence that, within certain groups of British Pakistanis, the rate of first-cousin marriage had increased rather than declined. The study offered an analysis and interpretation of a high rate of marriage to relatives, especially first cousins, in a sample of second-generation British Pakistanis. It argued that the high rate of such marriage is not a simple reflection of a cultural preference. The research also underlines the inadequacy of a blanket category Pakistani in relation to marriage patterns and choices. Shaw suggested that certain variations in region of origin, caste, socio-economic status, and upbringing must be considered in analysis in order to reveal the processes that have generated this pattern and allowed it to persist. Simpson (1997) claims that in Bradford 50 per cent of marriages are trans-continental, i.e. the partner sare from Pakistan. He has proposed two reasons that help explain the reasons for choosing partners from outside Britain, and has analysed the ways these reasons operate independently or may reinforce each other. Firstly, there is a cultural preference for consanguinity, usually marriage to a cousin, which is prevalent among the Pakistani community. As Sarah Bundey et al. (1990) showed in her research that 69 per cent of Birmingham Pakistani marriages are consanguineous and it is expected that if current researchers were carried out they will show similar levels in Bradford, considerably higher than in Pakistan itself. Simpson (1997) further argues that since emigration from Pakistan to Britain is usually seen as a positive achievement, marriage also functions specifically to fulfil a commitment to improve the family fortunes. He gives the second reason that many Muslim young peopl e in Bradford express a cultural preference for partners with traditional values and that sentiment is echoed by their parents who then arrange or help to arrange their marriage partners from Pakistan. Simpson nevertheless points out that, this trend should not be seen as simply a preference for subservient wives albeit this may be true for some. He further points out that there is qualitative evidence that some young Muslim women see men with traditional values from Pakistan as providing a more secure family future than the more liberal friends with whom they have grown up in Bradford. This Simpson points out may coincide both with the strong Muslim and the strong Pakistani identities that are noted among Bradford young women, based on researchers by Kim Knott and Sajda Khokher (1993) and by Kauser Mirza (1989). Modood and Berthoud (1997) carried out a research to show that among ethnic minority groups 20 per cent of African-Caribbeans

Self-improvement througth Frost Essay -- essays research papers

â€Å"The unexamined life is not worth living† â€Å"Know thyself† The great philosopher Socrates stated these ideas and made it his duty to fulfill his own reasoning. He knew that as human beings, we are a complex system of nature’s product that is still very enigmatic to our selves. Thus in order to fully comprehend one self as an individual, one must look inward and seek the cause and function of one’s own natural condition. Many methods are effective in one’s search, and this fact holds evident to our own differences, some use social interaction as a form of investigation, while others may find solitary confinement as a more productive approach. Through my own personal path to clarity and understanding, it has proved invaluable to myself that the reading of literature and poetry has a profound effect upon fulfillment. By associating oneself into the thoughts and theories of the writer, one can gain an insight into their personal condition. In particular, Robert Frost includes much thought and examples into his own behavior a s well as others. Through the analysis of Robert Frost’s poetry, one attains an insight into oneself, and a deeper perspective of the human condition. Poems such as â€Å"The Death of a Hired Man†, â€Å"The Road Not Taken†, and â€Å"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening† all are incorporated with his thoughts of the natural human condition, and delve into his own definitive bearing. Poetry, he wrote, was â€Å"one step backward taken,† resisting time-a â€Å"momentary stay against confusion.†(Baym 1116) The confusion that Frost recalls is the chaos that is included in the search for oneself, and poetry to him was an elapse from the confusion. It gave him comfort to read and write of his thoughts, emotions, and beliefs, and analyze them in a humanistic nature that many could relate to and enjoy. In the 1930s when writers tended to be political activists, he was scene as one whose old-fashioned values were inappropriate, even dangerous, in modern times. Frost deeply resented this criticism, and responded with a new hortatory, didactic kind of poetry. (Baym1116) This style of poetry created an atmosphere that urged the reader to generate perception into the moral subject and envision the meaning behind them. Frost shared with Thoreau and Emerson the belief that everybody is a separate individuality and that collective enterprise could do nothing but weaken the self. (... ... own idea of their balance and enforce the idea that the importance of such is invaluable, thus aiding in the search for oneself as an individual. Scientists say that the human race is the most complex and sophisticated race of all. They say that the full understanding of such an entity is far from attainable. Robert Frost is a man and a poet who knew himself, a person who will continue to fulfill his needs as a human. His work as a poet is all the evidence that is needed to prove this thought. One may greatly benefit in the study and thought of his work, a teacher for all to learn if the mind is open. The human condition is continuously brought up in his poetry as a force to be made comfortable and understanding to. Listen to your inner condition and learn as Frost has of its great power to enrich the individual to a higher plain. Search into yourself as a book always being rewritten, ready for tuning, open for improvement. Work Cited Baym, Nina. The Notron Anthology of American Literature. Fifth edition, vol 2. Ed. Juliae Reidhead. Unites States of America, 1998 Self Improvement through the poetry of Robert Frost

Love in The Taming of the Shrew Essay -- Taming of the Shrew Essays

Love in The Taming of the Shrew Wonder, for a moment, what Shakespeare means when he uses the word â€Å"love†, if it really does exist in any of the relationships in this play, particularly between Petruccio and Katherine. Is love not a certainty? Such winds scatters young men through the world To seek their fortunes farther than at home, Where small experience grows. But in in a few, Signor Hortensio, thus it stands with me: Antonio, my father, is deceased, And I have thrust myself into this maze Happily to wive and thriveas best I may. Crowns in my purse I have, and goods at home, And so I am come abroad to see the world. (1.2.47-55) Upon the death of his father who cared for him, he is in search of a wife so that he can live a desired lifestyle upon her fortunes. He is not desirous of love, or lust, or infatuation, b...

Neuropathology of AIDS :: Health Medicine Medical Diseases Essays

Neuropathology of AIDS Since its discovery in 1981, AIDS has mainly been characterized as a disease effecting the bodying immune system. It has been recognized, however, that there are distinct neurological pathologies associated with the disease. AIDS neuropathology can be characterized by the existence of subcortical dementia, motor difficulties, and affective disorders. Most AIDS patients experience dementia of one form or another. It has been observed that approximately 95% of AIDS patients brain’s show signs of damage, and 60% of patients develop dementia of one degree or another. The AIDS virus is an RNA retrovirus which attaches to and infects T helper cells and other cells of the immune system. The virus normally goes through a typical lytic life cycle which is seen in the pathology of most viruses. Originally the HIV virus was associated wilt the CD4 receptor found on the immune cells, but it has been discovered that the OKT4 receptor is also a site of entry for the virus. This receptor is not only present in macrophages, but it is also found in glial cells of the CNS. There are basically three sites of entry where the HIV virus and infected macrophages can invade the CNS. The first is the blood brain barrier. If there is damage to the integrity of this barrier, the virus can easily pass into the brain tissue and proliferate. The second barrier is the blood CSF barrier. The choroid plexus males up this particular barrier, and the barrier is maintained by the existence of tight junctions. If there is a breakdown of these tight junctions, infected macrophages can pass from the blood into the CSF where they can pass to nearly any area of the CNS. The final site of entry, and perhaps the most likely' are the cicumventricular organs. This is the only site in the CNS where there is an absence of a barrier, and the macrophages carrying the virus are free to pass through these. From here the virus can spread almost anywhere in the CNS, but they intend to infect areas near their site of entry. The most common initial symptom seen in neurological disorders related to AIDS is subcortical dementia. The cardinal feature of subcortical dementia include slowing of mental processes, progressive impairment of memory, and deficits in manipulating or using spontaneously acquired information (i.e., poor problem solving). However, unlike the cortical dementias, higher-order associative function is preserved' and intellectual impairment is milder in the subcortical dementias.